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   Not to be confused with IP Code.

   Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
   For the Wikipedia user access level, see Wikipedia:User access levels §
   Unregistered (IP or not logged in) users.

   An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label such as
   192.0.2.1 that is connected to a computer network that uses the Internet
   Protocol for communication.^[1]^[2] An IP address serves two main
   functions: network interface identification and location addressing.

   Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit
   number.^[2] However, because of the growth of the Internet and the
   depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using
   128 bits for the IP address, was standardized in 1998.^[3]^[4]^[5] IPv6
   deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.

   IP addresses are written and displayed in human-readable notations, such
   as 192.0.2.1 in IPv4, and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 in IPv6. The size of
   the routing prefix of the address is designated in CIDR notation by
   suffixing the address with the number of significant bits, e.g.,
   192.0.2.1/24, which is equivalent to the historically used subnet mask
   255.255.255.0.

   The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers
   Authority (IANA), and by five regional Internet registries (RIRs)
   responsible in their designated territories for assignment to local
   Internet registries, such as Internet service providers (ISPs), and other
   end users. IPv4 addresses were distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks
   of approximately 16.8 million addresses each, but have been exhausted at
   the IANA level since 2011. Only one of the RIRs still has a supply for
   local assignments in Africa.^[6] Some IPv4 addresses are reserved for
   private networks and are not globally unique.

   Network administrators assign an IP address to each device connected to a
   network. Such assignments may be on a static (fixed or permanent) or
   dynamic basis, depending on network practices and software features.

Contents

     * 1 Function
     * 2 IP versions
     * 3 Subnetworks
     * 4 IPv4 addresses
          * 4.1 Subnetting history
          * 4.2 Private addresses
     * 5 IPv6 addresses
          * 5.1 Private addresses
     * 6 IP address assignment
          * 6.1 Sticky dynamic IP address
          * 6.2 Address autoconfiguration
          * 6.3 Addressing conflicts
     * 7 Routing
          * 7.1 Unicast addressing
          * 7.2 Broadcast addressing
          * 7.3 Multicast addressing
          * 7.4 Anycast addressing
     * 8 Geolocation
     * 9 Public address
     * 10 Firewalling
     * 11 Address translation
     * 12 Diagnostic tools
     * 13 See also
     * 14 References

Function

   An IP address serves two principal functions: it identifies the host, or
   more specifically its network interface, and it provides the location of
   the host in the network, and thus the capability of establishing a path to
   that host. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates
   what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to
   get there."^[2] The header of each IP packet contains the IP address of
   the sending host and that of the destination host.

IP versions

   Two versions of the Internet Protocol are in common use on the Internet
   today. The original version of the Internet Protocol that was first
   deployed in 1983 in the ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet, is
   Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4).

   The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space available for assignment to
   Internet service providers and end-user organizations by the early 1990s,
   prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new
   technologies to expand the addressing capability on the Internet. The
   result was a redesign of the Internet Protocol which became eventually
   known as Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995.^[3]^[4]^[5] IPv6
   technology was in various testing stages until the mid-2000s when
   commercial production deployment commenced.

   Today, these two versions of the Internet Protocol are in simultaneous
   use. Among other technical changes, each version defines the format of
   addresses differently. Because of the historical prevalence of IPv4, the
   generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by
   IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the
   assignment of version 5 to the experimental Internet Stream Protocol in
   1979, which however was never referred to as IPv5.

   Other versions v1 to v9 were defined, but only v4 and v6 ever gained
   widespread use. v1 and v2 were names for TCP protocols in 1974 and 1977,
   as there was no separate IP specification at the time. v3 was defined in
   1978, and v3.1 is the first version where TCP is separated from IP. v6 is
   a synthesis of several suggested versions, v6 Simple Internet Protocol, v7
   TP/IX: The Next Internet, v8 PIP — The P Internet Protocol, and v9 TUBA —
   Tcp & Udp with Big Addresses.^[7]

Subnetworks

   IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6. For
   this purpose, an IP address is recognized as consisting of two parts: the
   network prefix in the high-order bits and the remaining bits called the
   rest field, host identifier, or interface identifier (IPv6), used for host
   numbering within a network.^[1] The subnet mask or CIDR notation
   determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts.

   The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however
   use the CIDR concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by
   a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part,
   also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its
   subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR
   notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the
   first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.

IPv4 addresses

   Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
   Main article: IPv4 § Addressing
   [IMG] 
   Enlarge
   Decomposition of an IPv4 address from dot-decimal notation to its binary
   value

   An IPv4 address has a size of 32 bits, which limits the address space to
   4294967296 (2^32) addresses. Of this number, some addresses are reserved
   for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) and
   multicast addressing (~270 million addresses).

   IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation, consisting
   of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots,
   e.g., 192.0.2.1. Each part represents a group of 8 bits (an octet) of the
   address.^[8] In some cases of technical writing,^[specify] IPv4 addresses
   may be presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations.

  Subnetting history

   In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol, the network
   number was always the highest order octet (most significant eight bits).
   Because this method allowed for only 256 networks, it soon proved
   inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent of the
   existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the
   addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful
   network architecture.^[2]

   Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network
   assignments and fine-grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of
   the most significant octet of an IP address were defined as the class of
   the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for universal
   unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network
   identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address.
   Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier,
   thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes (B
   and C). The following table gives an overview of this now-obsolete system.

                    Historical classful network architecture
                 Size of  Size            Number of                           
         Leading network  of     Number   addresses Start     
   Class bits    number   rest   of       per       address   End address
                 bit      bit    networks network   
                 field    field  
   A     0       8        24     128      16777216  0.0.0.0   127.255.255.255 
                                 (2^7)    (2^24)    
   B     10      16       16     16384    65536     128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 
                                 (2^14)   (2^16)    
   C     110     24       8      2097152  256 (2^8) 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255 
                                 (2^21)   

   Classful network design served its purpose in the startup stage of the
   Internet, but it lacked scalability in the face of the rapid expansion of
   networking in the 1990s. The class system of the address space was
   replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993. CIDR is based
   on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing
   based on arbitrary-length prefixes. Today, remnants of classful network
   concepts function only in a limited scope as the default configuration
   parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g.
   netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators'
   discussions.

  Private addresses

   Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned
   for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be
   globally unique. However, it was found that this was not always necessary
   as private networks developed and public address space needed to be
   conserved.

   Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that
   communicate only with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally unique
   IP addresses. Today, such private networks are widely used and typically
   connect to the Internet with network address translation (NAT), when
   needed.

   Three non-overlapping ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks are
   reserved.^[9] These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus
   their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry. Any user
   may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator
   will divide a block into subnets; for example, many home routers
   automatically use a default address range of 192.168.0.0 through
   192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).

                        Reserved private IPv4 network ranges^[9]
           Name   CIDR block     Address range   Number of Classful           
                                                 addresses description        
           24-bit 10.0.0.0/8     10.0.0.0 –       16777216 Single Class A.    
           block                 10.255.255.255  
           20-bit                172.16.0.0 –              Contiguous range   
           block  172.16.0.0/12  172.31.255.255    1048576 of 16 Class B      
                                                           blocks.            
           16-bit                192.168.0.0 –             Contiguous range   
           block  192.168.0.0/16 192.168.255.255     65536 of 256 Class C     
                                                           blocks.            

IPv6 addresses

   Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
   Main article: IPv6 address
   [IMG] 
   Enlarge
   Decomposition of an IPv6 address from hexadecimal representation to its
   binary value

   In IPv6, the address size was increased from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128 bits,
   thus providing up to 2^128 (approximately 3.403×10^38) addresses. This is
   deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future.

   The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity
   of addresses, but also redesign routing in the Internet by allowing more
   efficient aggregation of subnetwork routing prefixes. This resulted in
   slower growth of routing tables in routers. The smallest possible
   individual allocation is a subnet for 2^64 hosts, which is the square of
   the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address
   utilization ratios will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new
   design also provides the opportunity to separate the addressing
   infrastructure of a network segment, i.e. the local administration of the
   segment's available space, from the addressing prefix used to route
   traffic to and from external networks. IPv6 has facilities that
   automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks, should the
   global connectivity or the routing policy change, without requiring
   internal redesign or manual renumbering.

   The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for
   specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient
   routing. With a large address space, there is no need to have complex
   address conservation methods as used in CIDR.

   All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native
   support for IPv6, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such
   as residential networking routers, voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia
   equipment, and some networking hardware.

  Private addresses

   Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private networks, blocks of addresses
   are set aside in IPv6. In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local
   addresses (ULAs). The routing prefix fc00::/7 is reserved for this
   block,^[10] which is divided into two /8 blocks with different implied
   policies. The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number that
   minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are
   misrouted.

   Early practices used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed
   site-local addresses.^[11] However, the definition of what constituted a
   site remained unclear and the poorly defined addressing policy created
   ambiguities for routing. This address type was abandoned and must not be
   used in new systems.^[12]

   Addresses starting with fe80::, called link-local addresses, are assigned
   to interfaces for communication on the attached link. The addresses are
   automatically generated by the operating system for each network
   interface. This provides instant and automatic communication between all
   IPv6 hosts on a link. This feature is used in the lower layers of IPv6
   network administration, such as for the Neighbor Discovery Protocol.

   Private and link-local address prefixes may not be routed on the public
   Internet.

IP address assignment

   IP addresses are assigned to a host either dynamically as they join the
   network, or persistently by configuration of the host hardware or
   software. Persistent configuration is also known as using a static IP
   address. In contrast, when a computer's IP address is assigned each time
   it restarts, this is known as using a dynamic IP address.

   Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by network using Dynamic Host
   Configuration Protocol (DHCP). DHCP is the most frequently used technology
   for assigning addresses. It avoids the administrative burden of assigning
   specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows
   devices to share the limited address space on a network if only some of
   them are online at a particular time. Typically, dynamic IP configuration
   is enabled by default in modern desktop operating systems.

   The address assigned with DHCP is associated with a lease and usually has
   an expiration period. If the lease is not renewed by the host before
   expiry, the address may be assigned to another device. Some DHCP
   implementations attempt to reassign the same IP address to a host, based
   on its MAC address, each time it joins the network. A network
   administrator may configure DHCP by allocating specific IP addresses based
   on MAC address.

   DHCP is not the only technology used to assign IP addresses dynamically.
   Bootstrap Protocol is a similar protocol and predecessor to DHCP. Dialup
   and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the
   Point-to-Point Protocol.

   Computers and equipment used for the network infrastructure, such as
   routers and mail servers, are typically configured with static addressing.

   In the absence or failure of static or dynamic address configurations, an
   operating system may assign a link-local address to a host using stateless
   address autoconfiguration.

  Sticky dynamic IP address

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   Sticky is an informal term used to describe a dynamically assigned IP
   address that seldom changes. IPv4 addresses, for example, are usually
   assigned with DHCP, and a DHCP service can use rules that maximize the
   chance of assigning the same address each time a client asks for an
   assignment. In IPv6, a prefix delegation can be handled similarly, to make
   changes as rare as feasible. In a typical home or small-office setup, a
   single router is the only device visible to an Internet service provider
   (ISP), and the ISP may try to provide a configuration that is as stable as
   feasible, i.e. sticky. On the local network of the home or business, a
   local DHCP server may be designed to provide sticky IPv4 configurations,
   and the ISP may provide a sticky IPv6 prefix delegation, giving clients
   the option to use sticky IPv6 addresses. Sticky should not be confused
   with static; sticky configurations have no guarantee of stability, while
   static configurations are used indefinitely and only changed deliberately.

  Address autoconfiguration

   Address block 169.254.0.0/16 is defined for the special use of link-local
   addressing for IPv4 networks.^[13] In IPv6, every interface, whether using
   static or dynamic addresses, also receives a link-local address
   automatically in the block fe80::/10.^[13] These addresses are only valid
   on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection,
   to which a host is connected. These addresses are not routable and, like
   private addresses, cannot be the source or destination of packets
   traversing the Internet.

   When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed
   for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft
   developed a protocol called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA), whose
   first public implementation appeared in Windows 98.^[14] APIPA has been
   deployed on millions of machines and became a de facto standard in the
   industry. In May 2005, the IETF defined a formal standard for it.^[15]

  Addressing conflicts

   An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical
   or wireless network claim to have the same IP address. A second assignment
   of an address generally stops the IP functionality of one or both of the
   devices. Many modern operating systems notify the administrator of IP
   address conflicts.^[16]^[17] When IP addresses are assigned by multiple
   people and systems with differing methods, any of them may be at
   fault.^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22] If one of the devices involved in the
   conflict is the default gateway access beyond the LAN for all devices on
   the LAN, all devices may be impaired.

Routing

   IP addresses are classified into several classes of operational
   characteristics: unicast, multicast, anycast and broadcast addressing.

  Unicast addressing

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   The most common concept of an IP address is in unicast addressing,
   available in both IPv4 and IPv6. It normally refers to a single sender or
   a single receiver, and can be used for both sending and receiving.
   Usually, a unicast address is associated with a single device or host, but
   a device or host may have more than one unicast address. Sending the same
   data to multiple unicast addresses requires the sender to send all the
   data many times over, once for each recipient.

  Broadcast addressing

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   Broadcasting is an addressing technique available in IPv4 to address data
   to all possible destinations on a network in one transmission operation as
   an all-hosts broadcast. All receivers capture the network packet. The
   address 255.255.255.255 is used for network broadcast. In addition, a more
   limited directed broadcast uses the all-ones host address with the network
   prefix. For example, the destination address used for directed broadcast
   to devices on the network 192.0.2.0/24 is 192.0.2.255.

   IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing and replaces it with
   multicast to the specially defined all-nodes multicast address.

  Multicast addressing

   A multicast address is associated with a group of interested receivers. In
   IPv4, addresses 224.0.0.0 through 239.255.255.255 (the former Class D
   addresses) are designated as multicast addresses.^[23] IPv6 uses the
   address block with the prefix ff00::/8 for multicast. In either case, the
   sender sends a single datagram from its unicast address to the multicast
   group address and the intermediary routers take care of making copies and
   sending them to all interested receivers (those that have joined the
   corresponding multicast group).

  Anycast addressing

   Like broadcast and multicast, anycast is a one-to-many routing topology.
   However, the data stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one
   which the router decides is closest in the network. Anycast addressing is
   a built-in feature of IPv6.^[24]^[25] In IPv4, anycast addressing is
   implemented with Border Gateway Protocol using the shortest-path metric to
   choose destinations. Anycast methods are useful for global load balancing
   and are commonly used in distributed DNS systems.

Geolocation

   This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2020) 

   Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
   Main article: Internet geolocation

   A host may use geolocation to deduce the geographic position of its
   communicating peer.^[26]^[27]

Public address

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   template message)                                                          

   A public IP address is a globally routable unicast IP address, meaning
   that the address is not an address reserved for use in private networks,
   such as those reserved by RFC 1918, or the various IPv6 address formats of
   local scope or site-local scope, for example for link-local addressing.
   Public IP addresses may be used for communication between hosts on the
   global Internet. In a home situation, a public IP address is the IP
   address assigned to the home's network by the ISP. In this case, it is
   also locally visible by logging into the router configuration.^[28]

   Most public IP addresses change, and relatively often. Any type of IP
   address that changes is called a dynamic IP address. In home networks, the
   ISP usually assigns a dynamic IP. If an ISP gave a home network an
   unchanging address, it's more likely to be abused by customers who host
   websites from home, or by hackers who can try the same IP address over and
   over until they breach a network.^[29]

Firewalling

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   template message)                                                          

   For security and privacy considerations, network administrators often
   desire to restrict public Internet traffic within their private networks.
   The source and destination IP addresses contained in the headers of each
   IP packet are a convenient means to discriminate traffic by IP address
   blocking or by selectively tailoring responses to external requests to
   internal servers. This is achieved with firewall software running on the
   network's gateway router. A database of IP addresses of restricted and
   permissible traffic may be maintained in blacklists and whitelists,
   respectively.

Address translation

   Multiple client devices can appear to share an IP address, either because
   they are part of a shared web hosting service environment or because an
   IPv4 network address translator (NAT) or proxy server acts as an
   intermediary agent on behalf of the client, in which case the real
   originating IP address is masked from the server receiving a request. A
   common practice is to have a NAT mask many devices in a private network.
   Only the public interface(s) of the NAT needs to have an Internet-routable
   address.^[30]

   The NAT device maps different IP addresses on the private network to
   different TCP or UDP port numbers on the public network. In residential
   networks, NAT functions are usually implemented in a residential gateway.
   In this scenario, the computers connected to the router have private IP
   addresses and the router has a public address on its external interface to
   communicate on the Internet. The internal computers appear to share one
   public IP address.

Diagnostic tools

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   template message)                                                          

   Computer operating systems provide various diagnostic tools to examine
   network interfaces and address configuration. Microsoft Windows provides
   the command-line interface tools ipconfig and netsh and users of Unix-like
   systems may use ifconfig, netstat, route, lanstat, fstat, and iproute2
   utilities to accomplish the task.

See also

     * icon Internet portal
     * icon Computer programming portal
     * Hostname
     * IP address spoofing
     * IP aliasing
     * IP multicast
     * List of assigned /8 IPv4 address blocks
     * Reverse DNS lookup
     * Virtual IP address
     * WHOIS

References

    1. ^ ^a ^b RFC 760, DOD Standard Internet Protocol, DARPA, Information
       Sciences Institute (January 1980).
    2. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       J. Postel, ed. (September 1981). Internet Protocol, DARPA Internet
       Program Protocol Specification. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC0791. RFC 791.
       Updated by
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       RFC 1349, 2474, 6864.
    3. ^ ^a ^b
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       S. Deering; R. Hinden (December 1995). Internet Protocol, Version 6
       (IPv6) Specification. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1883. RFC
       1883.
    4. ^ ^a ^b
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       S. Deering; R. Hinden (December 1998). Internet Protocol, Version 6
       (IPv6) Specification. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC2460. RFC
       2460.
    5. ^ ^a ^b
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       S. Deering; R. Hinden (July 2017). Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6)
       Specification. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC8200. RFC 8200.
    6. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       "IPv4 Address Report".
    7. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       DeLong, Owen. "Why does IP have versions? Why do I care?" (PDF).
       Scale15x. Retrieved 24 January 2020.
    8. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       "IPv4 and IPv6 address formats". www.ibm.com. An IPv4 address has the
       following format: x . x . x . x where x is called an octet and must be
       a decimal value between 0 and 255. Octets are separated by periods. An
       IPv4 address must contain three periods and four octets. The following
       examples are valid IPv4 addresses:
       1 . 2 . 3 . 4
       01 . 102 . 103 . 104
    9. ^ ^a ^b
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       Y. Rekhter; B. Moskowitz; D. Karrenberg; G. J. de Groot; E. Lear
       (February 1996). Address Allocation for Private Internets. Network
       Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1918. BCP 5. RFC 1918. Updated by
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       RFC 6761.
   10. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       R. Hinden; B. Haberman (October 2005). Unique Local IPv6 Unicast
       Addresses. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC4193. RFC 4193.
   11. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       R. Hinden; S. Deering (April 2003). Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)
       Addressing Architecture. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC3513.
       RFC 3513. Obsoleted by
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       RFC 4291.
   12. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       C. Huitema; B. Carpenter (September 2004). Deprecating Site Local
       Addresses. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC3879. RFC 3879.
   13. ^ ^a ^b
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       M. Cotton; L. Vegoda; R. Bonica; B. Haberman (April 2013).
       Special-Purpose IP Address Registries. Internet Engineering Task
       Force. doi:10.17487/RFC6890. BCP 153. RFC 6890. Updated by
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       RFC 8190.
   14. ^
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       "DHCP and Automatic Private IP Addressing". docs.microsoft.com.
       Retrieved 20 May 2019.
   15. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       S. Cheshire; B. Aboba; E. Guttman (May 2005). Dynamic Configuration of
       IPv4 Link-Local Addresses. Network Working Group.
       doi:10.17487/RFC3927. RFC 3927.
   16. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       "Event ID 4198 — TCP/IP Network Interface Configuration". TechNet.
       Microsoft Docs. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
   17. ^
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       "Event ID 4199 — TCP/IP Network Interface Configuration". TechNet.
       Microsoft Docs. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
   18. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       Mitchell, Bradley. "IP Address Conflicts – What Is an IP Address
       Conflict?". About.com. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014.
       Retrieved 23 November 2013.
   19. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       Kishore, Aseem (4 August 2009). "How to Fix an IP Address Conflict".
       Online Tech Tips Online-tech-tips.com. Archived from the original on
       25 August 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
   20. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       "Get help with "There is an IP address conflict" message". Microsoft.
       22 November 2013. Archived from the original on 26 September 2013.
       Retrieved 23 November 2013.
   21. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       "Fix duplicate IP address conflicts on a DHCP network". Microsoft.
       Archived from the original on 28 December 2014. Retrieved 23 November
       2013. Article ID: 133490 – Last Review: 15 October 2013 – Revision:
       5.0
   22. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       Moran, Joseph (1 September 2010). "Understanding And Resolving IP
       Address Conflicts - Webopedia.com". Webopedia.com. Archived from the
       original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
   23. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       M. Cotton; L. Vegoda; D. Meyer (March 2010). IANA Guidelines for IPv4
       Multicast Address Assignments. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC5771.
       ISSN 2070-1721. BCP 51. RFC 5771.
   24. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       RFC 2526
   25. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       RFC 4291
   26. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       Holdener, Anthony T. (2011). HTML5 Geolocation. O'Reilly Media. p. 11.
       ISBN 9781449304720.
   27. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       Komosny, Dan (22 July 2021). "Retrospective IP Address Geolocation for
       Geography-Aware Internet Services". Sensors. 21 (15): 4975.
       Bibcode:2021Senso..21.4975K. doi:10.3390/s21154975. hdl:11012/200946.
       ISSN 1424-8220. PMC 8348169. PMID 34372212.
   28. ^
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       "How to Find Your Public IP Address".
   29. ^
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       "Why Public IP Addresses Change".
   30. ^
       Link: mw-deduplicated-inline-style
       Comer, Douglas (2000). Internetworking with TCP/IP:Principles,
       Protocols, and Architectures – 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
       Prentice Hall. p. 394. ISBN 978-0-13-018380-4. Archived from the
       original on 13 April 2010.

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